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1、1,第2章 资本结构的国际实证结果与经典理论,主讲人:何靖,本章内容,一 资本结构理论的产生与发展 资本结构的经典理论 (一)MM的资本结构理论 (二)MM理论的扩展 三 国际上实证研究的证据和现象,2,1、理论源于实践:资本结构企业面对的财务决策 (1)企业的资金来源或资本构成债务资本与权益资本 (a)债务的帐面价值与权益的帐面价值之比 (b)债务的市场价值与权益的市场价值之比,一 资本结构理论的产生与发展,(2)负债的优点和缺陷 (a)优点: * 利息费用可以减税,减少实际的资本费用; * 盈利归股东所有“肥水不流他人田”; * 债权人没有表决权,控制权归股东“四两拨千斤”。 (b)缺陷:

2、 * 负债比例越高,财务风险越高,资本费用(利息)越高; * 过高的利息可能冲减了负债的优点(例如,减税的优点); * 过度负债可能导致无力还本付息,最终被迫破产。,(3)负债的正面影响和负面影响Why & Why not? (a) 情形一 100%权益资本 50%权益资本+50%负债 净营运利润(NOI) 1000 1000 利息(5%) - 250 净利润 1000 750 资本 10000 10000 权益 10000 5000 债券 0 5000 股份 1000 500 EPS 1.0 1.5,由此可见:负债可以提高企业的盈利,即同样的企业,对比无负债,负债可以提高每股利润(EPS)。

3、,(b)情形二 100%权益资本 50%权益资本+50%负债 经营面临不确定性 50% 50% 50% 50% 净营运利润(NOI) 1000 250 1000 250 利息(5%) - - 250 250 净利润 1000 250 750 0 资本 10000 10000 10000 5000 权益 10000 10000 5000 5000 债券 0 0 5000 10000 股份 1000 1000 500 500 EPS 1 0.25 1.5 0 平均EPS 0.625 0.750 EPS的标准差 0.140 0.560,由此可见:如果企业的经营面临销售收入和利润的不确定性或波动性,则

4、同样的企业,对比无负债,负债在提高每股利润(EPS)的同时,也将增加EPS的变动性或风险。,(C)情形三 100%权益资本 NOI 1500 1250 1000 750 500 250 0 -500 利息 - - - - - - - - 净利润 1500 1250 1000 750 500 250 0 -500 股份 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 EPS 1.50 1.25 1.00 0.75 0.50 0.25 0 -0.50 50%权益资本+50%负债 NOI 1500 1250 1000 750 500 250 0 -500 利息 250

5、 250 250 250 250 250 250 250 净利润 1250 1000 750 500 250 0 -250 750 股份 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 EPS 2.50 2.00 1.50 1.00 0.50 0 -0.50 -1.50,由此可见: 在净营运利润(NOI)=500万元时,企业选择100%权益资本与选择50%权益资本企业选择50%负债的每股利润(EPS)相等,都是0.50元!表明二种资本结构的选择没有差异。 在净营运利润(NOI)500万元时,企业选择100%权益资本的EPS大于企业选择50%权益资本+50%负债的EPS,表明只要

6、企业的NOI大于等于500万元,企业选择50%的负债比较好! 在净营运利润(NOI)500万元时,企业选择100%权益资本的EPS小于企业选择50%权益资本+50%负债的EPS,表明当企业的NOI小于等于500万元,企业选择50%负债对EPS的负面影响迅速增加! 在经济不景气导致企业销售收入和盈利下降的状况下,企业负债对EPS的负面影响和所产生的风险(EPS的波动幅度)大于企业无负债。,(4)美国航空和皇冠公司同是负债经营,结果为什么不同? 美国皇冠公司(Crown Cork & Seal Co.)的股票在纽约证券交易所上市交易,通过负债,皇冠公司迅速扩张,收购其他企业,收益颇丰,成功地运用了

7、财务杠杆。从1988-1996年,皇冠公司的负债从9千万美元上升到 8 亿美元,负债比例上升至42%。由于收购的资产,经过重组后 运作有效,使得皇冠公司的ROE上升,推动其股票价格从10美元上升至50美元/股。 相比之下,美国航空公司(US Air)没有如此幸运。1996年,美国航空公司的长期负债与资本化资本的比例接近100%,说明整个公司基本上靠负债来支撑。为此,美国航空每年必须支付2亿美元的利息费用,相当于该公司90年代期间所获得的经营利润的50%。所以,美国航空也谈不上支付股东的股息。由于航空业是个具有周期性的行业,收入不稳定使得美国航空经营运作出现危机,最终摆脱不了被并购的命运。,案例

8、的问题:美航和皇冠的负债和经营的启示? 案例的启示: * 负债是一把“双刃剑”,有利有弊; * 负债后,资产必须发挥预期的效益; * 适度负债,有利于股东的利益; * 过度负债,可能导致企业陷入财务困境; * 同样的负债比例,因行业不同,效果不同; * 在经济不景气上升阶段或企业经营不善时,增加负债是危险的。,2、理论“指导”实践:资本结构一个颇有争议的论题 (1) 资本结构的经典理论 (a)M&M 理论( Modigliani & Miller,1958,58,63,65); (b)米勒模型(Miller Model,1977); (c)对 M&M 理论的修正和拓展(Jensen & Mec

9、kling, 1976;Altman,1984); (3)资本结构的现代理论(70年代后期) (a)信息不对称信号理论 (b)代理成本理论 (c)财务契约论,3、经典文献和杰出的贡献者 (1)David Durand,”Cost of Debt & Equity Fund for Business: Trends & Problems of Measurement,” Conference on Research in Business Finance, NBER, 1952. 总结早期资本结构理论的研究成果,开创资本结构理论研究。 (2)Franco Modigliani & Merton

10、Miller,”The Cost of Capital, Corporate Finance & Theory of Investment,” AER, June 1958. (3),” The Cost of Capital, Corporate Finance & Theory of Investment: Reply,” AER, Sept. 1958. (4),” Taxes & The Cost of Capital: A Correction,” AER, June 1963. (5),”Reply,” AER, June 1965. 根据1979年的调查(Cooley & Hec

11、k,1981,Financial Magt.),M&M理论是对财务研究领域影响最大、最深、最久的理论。,(5)Michael Jensen & William Meckling:”Theory of Firm: Managerial Behavior, Agent Costs, & Ownership Structure,” JOFE, Oct. 1976. 最早将“代理问题”、“控股权问题”引入资本结构理论。代理成本理论的奠基人。 (6)Miller, Merton, ”Debt & Taxes,” JOF, May 1977. 税差学派的奠基人和代表人物。 (7)Gordon Myron,

12、 ”The Cost of Capital to a Public Utility,”Graduate School of Business Administration, Michigan State University, 1974. 资本结构有关论的代表,资本结构与企业价值关系的实证研究的范例。,(8)Leland & Pyle, ”Informational Asymmetries, Financial Structure & Financial Intermediation,” JOF, May 1977. 将信息不对称理论引入资本结构问题的研究。 (9)Myers Stewart,

13、 “The Capital Structure Puzzle,” JOF, July 1984. (10) Myers & Nicholas,“Corpoate Finance & Investment Decisions when Firms Have Information That Investors Do Not Have,” JOFE, 1984. (11)Baskin Jonathon,“An Empirical Investigation on Pecking Order Hypothesis,”Financial Management, Spring 1989. Myers:

14、信息不对称理论信号理论的代表人物;优序融资论的创建者。,二 资本结构的经典理论,迄今为止,学术研究已经取得二大好处:一是极大地澄清了关于我们筹资的思路;二是它促使我们重新估计债务在筹资经营中所能发挥的作用。大萧条年代把负债当作十恶不赦的观念已经随风而去,取而代之是一种更为完善的观点在适当的场合,按适当的比例负债,可以增加企业的价值。 希金斯,15,16,(一)MM的资本结构理论 1 不考虑公司所得税的MM模型 2 考虑公司所得税的MM模型 (二)MM理论的扩展 1 权衡理论 2 Miller模型,17,(一) MM的资本结构理论,公司金融理论的最重要的基石是由美国著名经济学家莫迪格利安尼( F

15、ranco Modigliani )和米勒( Merton Miller )在他们1958年发表的论文及其后续的一系列资本结构相关的论文中奠定的。他们的理论称为MM的资本结构理论,简称MM理论。,18,Franco Modigliani,(1918 2003) was an Italian-American economist at the MIT Sloan School of Management and MIT Department of Economics, and winner of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics in 1985 for

16、his pioneering analyses of saving and of financial markets.,19,Merton Miller,(1923 2000) was an economist at the University of Chicago, and winner of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics in 1990, along with Harry Markowitz and William Sharpe, for their pioneering work in the theory of financial eco

17、nomics.,在Modigliani和Miller教授1958年发表他们的论文之前,国际经济学界对公司的资本结构存在很多误解和理论误区。 不少经济学家认为,在完美市场的理论框架内,一个公司也可以有一个最优的资本结构(负债率)。 Modigliani和Miller教授在他们的论文里证明,这是不可能的:在完美市场中,一个公司的价值和它的资本结构无关。,20,21,MM理论第一次以严密的语言,在严格的假设条件下研究了资本结构和企业价值之间的关系。 根据这一理论的发展脉络,主要可以分为三个阶段,1 最初的MM理论 (无企业所得税) 研究学者: Modigliani &Miller(1958),2 修

18、正的MM理论 (有企业所得税) 研究学者: Modigliani &Miller(1963),税差学派 研究学者: Farrar & Selwyn(1967),3 米勒市场均衡模型 研究学者: Miller(1977),后来许多学者在MM理论的基础之上,不断放宽各种假设条件,从不同角度进一步研究了资本结构的决定因素,形成了资本结构的不同理论。,一个问题:如何切蛋糕能扩大蛋糕吗?,23,MM理论的基本假设条件,MM理论相关结论的得出,依赖于一系列假设条件。这些假设条件形成了一个理想的资本市场。,24,25,最初的MM理论不考虑公司所得税的MM模型,财务杠杆效应 自制杠杆 MM 命题 I(无税)

19、MM 命题II(无税),26,财务杠杆效应:举例,Consider a firm that is currently financed with all equity, no debt in its capital structure. The total value of the firm is $20,000 and there are 400 shares outstanding. The firm is considering issuing debt to buy some of the equity back. The proposed debt issue would raise

20、 $8,000 at a rate of 8%. Assume no corporate taxes.,27,发行债务回购股票,CurrentProposed Assets$20,000$20,000 Debt$0$8,000 Equity$20,000$12,000 Debt/Equity ratio02/3 Interest rate 8% 8% Shares outstanding400240 Share price$50$50 Shares bought = $8,000/$50 = 160,28,无杠杆时的情形,RecessionExpectedExpansion EBIT(息税前收

21、益)$1,000$2,000$3,000 Interest000 Net income$1,000$2,000$3,000 EPS(每股收益)$2.50$5.00$7.50 ROA(资产收益率)5%10%15% ROE(净资产收益率)5%10%15% Currently 400 shares outstanding EPS = Net Income/ Shares ROA = EBIT/Assets ROE = Net Income/Equity = Net Income/$20,000,29,采用杠杆时的情形,RecessionExpectedExpansion EBIT$1,000$2,0

22、00$3,000 Interest640640640 Net income$360$1,360$2,360 EPS$1.50$5.67$9.83 ROA5%10%15% ROE3%11.3%19.7% Proposed shares: 400 - 160 = 240 Interest = 8%$8,000 = $640 ROA = EBIT/Assets ROE = Net Income/Equity = Net Income/$12,000,30,The variability in both ROE and EPS increases when financial leverage is

23、increased. Leverage increases the risk of holding equity! Hence, greater use of debt magnifies EPS and ROE in either direction (when the profitability is good or bad). Using more debt makes EPS and ROE more risky since both EPS and ROE are more sensitive to changes in EBIT。,Leverage Increases Risk,3

24、1,投资者(股东)偏好杠杆公司、还是偏好无杠杆公司?,Questions,32,Suppose investor has $1,200. If the firm does not adopt the new capital structure she can buy 24 shares at $50/share and borrow $800 to buy another 16 shares. RecessionExpectedExpansion EPS of Unlevered Firm$2.50$5.00$7.50 Earnings for 40 shares$100$200$300 Le

25、ss interest on $800 (8%)$64$64$64 Net Profits$36$136$236 ROE (Net Profits / $1,200)3%11.3%19.7% Investor buys 40 shares and gets the same ROE as if she bought into a levered firm. Investors personal debt-equity ratio is D/E = $800/$1200 = 2/3.,自制财务杠杆,33,Homemade leverage,投资者为什么借 $800? We were trying

26、 to replicate the proposed capital structure at the personal level. The proposed capital structure has a D/E ratio of 2/3. Hence, we need to borrow $800 to create a personal capital structure with a D/E ratio of 2/3 = $800/$1,200. How much should we borrow to create a homemade leverage for the secon

27、d firm if the investor has $2,000 invested in the firm?,34,自制财务杠杆:The Main Points,Assume a perfect world of capital markets where individuals can borrow at the same rate as corporations. The choice of capital structure is irrelevant if the investor can duplicate the cash flows on their own. 无论企业选择什么

28、样的杠杆水平,只要投资者能够以与企业相同的利率借入资金,投资者就能够通过自制杠杆购买无杠杆公司股票,获得投资于杠杆公司股票相同的收益率。 换一个说法,自制杠杆策略使得无杠杆公司与杠杆公司相对于投资者而言没有差别。,35,自制杠杆策略的存在意味着杠杆公司与无杠杆公司具有相同的价值,这就是著名的MM第一命题:VL= VU ,1958年由Modigliani和Miller提出。 MM定理1基于下面的套利思想: 如果杠杆公司的价值较高,投资于杠杆公司股票的成本将高于投资于无杠杆公司股票; 理性的投资者将不会投资于杠杆公司,而会通过自制杠杆投资于无杠杆公司的股票,从而用较便宜的成本获得相同的投资回报;

29、均衡的结果必然是杠杆公司价值下跌,无杠杆公司价值上升,直到它们的价值相等。,MM命题I(无税),36,MM 第一命题,利用套利原理对MM命题1证明如下:无杠杆公司价值VU=E1,杠杆公司价值 VL =E2+B,市场利率为r。另外,公司的收益分别为Y1、Y2,由于无杠杆公司和杠杆公司资产状况相同,因此有Y1=Y2。 考虑这样一个投资组合:卖空杠杆公司部分的股份,同时买进部分无杠杆公司股份(0 1 ): 该项投资的成本为 I= E1- E2 = (E1- E2 ) 该项投资的收益为 P= Y1- Y2 -(1+r)B= (1+r)B 上述投资为一项无风险投资,应该获得与市场利率相当的收益率r,因此

30、有 要使上式相等,必然有: VL= VU,37,MM Proposition I: The Pie Model,Source: Ross, Westerfield, Jordan, and Roberts, Fundamentals of Corporate Finance, 5th Canadian edition, McGraw-Hill Ryerson.,38,MM 命题 I:进一步理解,从企业资产来看,杠杆企业与无杠杆企业资产状况、经营状况相同,资产风险相同,并且产生相同的EBIT,而企业价值是企业所产生现金流的折现值,因此应该有VL= VU 。 对于无杠杆企业,有 对于杠杆企业,有

31、Implication: 公司并不能通过融资策略的改变来创造价值。 A firms WACC is constant.,39,MM 命题 II(无税),Because of Proposition I (with no taxes), the WACC must be constant where RA is the return on the firms assets Solve for RE to get MM Proposition II:,40,MM命题II: The Cost of Equity and Financial Leverage,The cost of equity de

32、pends on The required rate of return on the firms assets, RA The firms cost of debt, RD The firms debt/equity ratio, D/E M&M Proposition I: The firms overall cost of capital is unaffected by its capital structure. The cost of equity rises as the firm increases its use of debt financing so that the W

33、ACC stays the same. The risk of equity depends on the risk of firm operations and on the degree of financial leverage.,41,MM 第二命题:图示,42,不考虑公司税的MM 模型:小结,假定环境:Perfect Capital markets Firms and investors can borrow/lend at the same rate. No transaction costs. No corporate or personal income taxes. 结论:

34、杠杆企业价值与无杠杆企业价值相等:VL= VU 权益成本随着负债的增加而上升: 政策含义: 资本结构变化不改变企业加权平均资本成本(WACC) 企业不存在最优资本结构(Optimal Capital Structure),MM定理I的结论:,显然,如何切蛋糕并不能做大蛋糕! 换句话说:资本的结构并不能扩大企业的价值!,对MM定理1假定条件的放松,那么,在什么情况下会扩大蛋糕呢?,对MM定理1假定条件的放松,实际上企业负债率研究领域存在很多可靠的实证结果: 1. 越是盈利的公司,举债越少。 为什么? 2. 拥有较多无形资产的公司倾向于少负债。 为什么? 3. 股转债时,企业价值会增加,债转股时,

35、企业价值会减少。 为什么?,对MM定理1假定条件的放松,Modigliani,Miller, 1963年,将公司所得税引进了MM定理1 他们放松了无公司所得税的假定条件,47,2 修正后的MM理论考虑公司所得税的MM模型,利息抵税 MM命题I (公司税) MM命题II (公司税),48,利息抵税,Debt is different than equity in two distinguishing ways: Interest payments are tax deductible. (A benefit of debt financing) Unmet debt obligations ca

36、n result in bankruptcy. (A cost of debt financing) We first look at the effect of introducing the corporate taxes on the M&M Propositions. 由于利息是在税前支付,与无杠杆企业相比,杠杆企业因为支付利息所交付的公司所得税较少,这被称为利息抵税(或节税),所减少的税额称作税盾(Tax shield)。,49,利息抵税效应,Consider two firms that have identical assets and operations with a con

37、stant earnings of $EBIT in perpetuity.,50,无杠杆企业与所得税,EarningsEBIT TaxesEBIT TC After-tax EarningsEBIT (1 TC) Cash flow to ShareholdersEBIT (1 TC) Cash flow to Bond holders0 Total Cash FlowEBIT x (1 TC) Notes: Since there are no bond holders, the cash flow to bond holders is zero.,51,杠杆企业与公司所得税,Earnin

38、gsEBIT Taxes(EBIT RD D) TC After-tax Earnings(EBIT RD D) (1 TC) Cash flow to Shareholders(EBIT RD D) (1 TC) Cash flow to Bond holdersRD D Total Cash Flow = (EBIT RD D) (1 TC) + RD D = (EBIT) (1 TC) + RD D TC,52,税盾,无杠杆企业流向投资者(股东)的现金流 EBIT (1 TC) 杠杆企业流向投资者(股东和债权人)的现金流 (EBIT) (1 TC) + RD D TC 与无杠杆企业相比,

39、杠杆企业流向投资者的现金流较高,高出的部分( RD D TC )就是税盾。,53,税盾的现值,假定杠杆企业保持债务额为D,则利息税盾为永久年金, RD D TC 。 可以认为税盾现金流与债务利息具有相同的风险,因此税盾现金流可以按照债务成本( RD )进行折现,其现值为: RD D TC / RD = D TC,54,MM 命题 I (公司税),The value of a levered firm is equal to the value of the unlevered firm plus the present value of the tax shield, i.e. 其中,VU 为

40、无杠杆企业的价值, D TC 为杠杆企业税盾的价值(现值之和)。,55,无杠杆企业价值(公司税),无杠杆企业每年税后现金流为 EBIT (1 TC),因此无杠杆企业价值为该项现金流的现值,即: 其中,RU 为无杠杆企业的资本成本。,56,MM Proposition I with Corporate Taxes,Debt financing is highly advantageous, and, in the extreme, a firms optimal capital structure has as much debt as possible.,57,EarningsEBIT Tax

41、es(EBIT RD D) TC After-tax Earnings(EBIT RD D) (1 TC) Cash flow to Shareholders (EBIT RD D) (1 TC) Investors choice 购买比例为a的L企业股票 Investors profits a (EBIT- RD D) (1- TC ) Investors invest a EL 说明:类似于无税情况下的MM理论,同样可以通过投资者自制财务杠杆及套利行为使两种投资方案收益相等。,投资杠杆企业与所得税,58,自制财务杠杆与所得税无杠杆企业,Earnings EBIT TaxesEBIT TC

42、After-tax EarningsEBIT (1 TC) Cash flow to ShareholdersEBIT (1 TC) Investorss choice 借入a D (1- TC )的资金, 购买比例为a的U企业股票 Investors profits a EBIT (1 TC)- a D (1- TC ) RD = a (EBIT- RD D) (1- TC ) Investors invest a EU- a D (1- TC ),59,根据有税收情况下的MM定理I,杠杆企业的资产负债表可以写为: VU 为无杠杆企业的价值 D为债务市值 DTC 为杠杆企业税盾的价值 E为权

43、益价值 因此,资产负债表左边的期望现金流量为 VU RU+ DTC RD 资产负债表右边表示企业资金的来源,属于债权人和股东的期望现金流量合计为 D RD+E RE,60,VU RU+ D TC RD=D RD+E RE (1) VL= D +E =VU+ D TC 可得 VU =E +D (1-TC) (2) 由式(1)(2)推导出,61,MM 命题II (公司税),The cost of equity becomes where RU is the cost of capital the firm would have if it had no debt Implication: 在存在公

44、司税的情况下,随着财务杠杆的增加,权益的资本成本上升。 A firms WACC decreases as the firm relies more heavily on debt.,62,MM Proposition II with Corporate Taxes,63,(二) MM理论的扩展对过度负债的限制,税盾和破产成本的权衡理论 Miller 的个人所得税模型,64,1 税盾和破产成本的权衡理论,MM proposition II with taxes suggest that an all-debt capital structure is optimal. Is an all-de

45、bt capital structure optimal? In the real world, we have taxes, but most firms use both debt and equity financing. How do we reconcile this with the MM proposition with Taxes? By looking at the costs of financial distress! Firms must balance the tax advantages of debt financing with the increased ba

46、nkruptcy costs.,65,Direct Costs of Financial Distress,企业在破产前和破产过程中会发生一系列成本,这些成本往往被称为破产成本。 When a firm goes bankruptcy, it has two basic options: Liquidation: The assets of the firm are sold and the proceeds paid out according to the priority rules.(破产法第7章) Reorganization: The firm renegotiates with

47、its creditors and issues new securities to replace the old ones. (破产法第11章) The legal process of bankruptcy is a long and costly process. There are legal and administrative costs and it will involve hundreds of lawyers. Some fraction of the firm will disappear due to these costs in the process of ban

48、kruptcy. These types of costs associated with bankruptcy are called the direct costs of financial distress.,66,Indirect Costs of Financial Distress,When a firm is facing problems meeting its debt obligations, the firm is said to be in financial distress or experiencing financial distress. Financial

49、distress does not necessarily mean “going out of business”(歇业). 在企业面临财务困境时,其经营活动往往受到重大影响,企业价值大幅下降。这被称为财务困境的间接成本。 Impaired ability to conduct business (e.g., lost sales) 无形资产的损失,67,债务代理成本,当公司面临财务困境时,公司管理者、股东和债权人各怀鬼胎,导致公司价值下降的部分。 股东的利己策略 Selfish strategy 1: Incentive to take large risks Selfish strate

50、gy 2: Incentive toward underinvestment 债权人的策略 债权人知道公司管理者和股东会采取减少债务价值的策略,因此会要求提高债务利率来保护自己,从而使得公司融资成本上升、公司价值下降。,破产成本,直接破产成本 是指破产法律过程中所产生的法庭律师和会计等费用,间接破产成本 (财务困境成本),无形资产的流失 而引发,代理成本,69,利息抵税与财务困境成本的权衡,There is a trade-off between the tax advantage of debt and the costs of financial distress. At low debt

51、 levels, the benefits from the tax shield outweighs the financial distress costs associated with debt financing. The opposite is true for high debt levels, i.e. the financial distress cost of debt financing outweighs the benefits from tax shield. It is difficult to express this with a precise and ri

52、gorous formula, but theoretically the optimal debt level lies somewhere in between these two extremes.,70,资本结构的静态权衡理论,Static Theory of Capital Structure states that a firm borrows up to the point where the tax benefit from an extra dollar in debt is exactly equal to the cost that comes from the incr

53、eased probability of financial distress. This is called the static theory because it assumes the firms assets and operations are fixed and it only considers possible changes in the debt/equity ratio. VL = VU + PV(tax savings) PV(financial distress costs),71,The Static Theory of Capital Structure: Fi

54、rm Value,72,The Static Theory of Capital Structure: WACC,73,2 考虑个人所得税的情形: Miller 模型,The Miller Model shows that the value of a levered firm can be expressed in terms of an unlevered firm as:,Where: TE = personal tax rate on equity income(权益收入的个人所得税率) TD = personal tax rate on bond income(债务收入的个人所得税率

55、) TC = corporate tax rate,74,Miller 模型的推导,The derivation is straightforward:,75,The Miller Model,The first term is the cash flow of an unlevered firm after all taxes. Its value = VU.,A bond is worth D. It promises to pay DRD (1- TD) after taxes. Thus the value of the second term is:,The total cash flow to all stakeholders in the levered firm is:,The value of the sum of these two terms must be VL,

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