英语词汇学第七八章

Chapter7

ChangesinWordMeaning

词义的演变

学习目标：了解词义变化的必然性，词义变化的主要方式和原因。考核要求：

本章共有两节1.词义变化的方式/种类识记以下术语的基本概念：词义的扩大、词义的缩小、词义的升华、词义的降格领会：四种变化方式在英语词汇发展中的作用。2.词义变化的原因领会：词义演变的原因语言外部原因：历史原因、阶级原因、心理原因。语言内部原因：缩略、借用、类推。

Alllanguageschangethroughtime——historicchange,hence

diachronicstudiesoflanguage.ModernEnglish—MiddleEnglish—OldEnglish现代汉语—近代汉语—古代汉语:比如，佛教中的“南无阿弥陀佛”,南无二字的语音变化nan’wuornamo?Languagechange：allpartsofgrammarmaychange:Soundchange

南无…morphologicalchange莫须有。theesyntacticchange

不知何适？vocabularychange

additionofnewwordslossofwords

changeinthemeaningofwordsl

Soundchange

stan

stone;ham,home;mice/i:/,mice/ai/;mouse/u://au/;broke/br哦ken/；l

morphologicalchange：thee——you;l

syntacticchange

Ilovetheenot→Idonotloveyou.Hesawyounot→Hedidn’tseeyou.l

vocabularychange

Vocabularyisthemostunstableelementofalanguageasitisundergoingconstantchangesbothinformandcontent.

7.1FourmajorTypesofChanges词义变化的四种类型识记基本概念：7.1.1Extension/generalization语义扩展Extensionreferstothewideningofwordmeaningthemeaningofawordbecomesbroader.e.g.

tailoncereferredto“thetailofahorse”,butnowitisusedtomean“thetailofanyanimal”.holidayoriginallymeantholyday,i.e.,adayofreligioussignificance.Today,thiswordsignifiesanydayonwhichwedon’thavetowork.So,tailandholidayhavewidenedtheirmeaning,fromspecifictogeneral.

7.1.2Narrowing:isalsocalledspecialization语义变窄/专业化Narrowingisaprocessbywhichawordofwidemeaningacquiresanarrowerorspecializedsense.Inthecourseofseveralgenerations,semanticchangehasnarrowedthemeaningofawordtowhatitisinModernEnglish.Forinstance,“hound”,whichusedtobethegeneraltermfor“dog”,hasbeennarrowedtoaspecialkindofdog.Otherexamplesaredeer

anyanimal→aparticularspecies

meat

food→ediblepartofananimalcorn

grain→aparticulargrainwife

woman→amarriedwomangirl

youngpersonofeithersex→femaleyoungperson

7.1.3Elevation语义提升

Elevationreferstotheprocessbywhichwordsrisefromhumblebeginningstopositionsofimportance,i.e.,changestheirmeaningfromloworhumbletosomethingagreeable,pleasant.

e.g.themeaningofnice,originallymeant“ignorant”,then“foolish”,nowelevatedtomean“delightful,pleasant”.

Otherexamplesare:

angel

messenger→messengerofGod

fond

foolish→affectionate

governor

pilot→headofastate

minister

servant→headofaministry

success

result→goodresultmarshal&constable

keeperofhorses→highrankingarmyofficer/policeman

7.1.4Degradation语义降格

Degradationorpejorationofmeaningistheoppositeofsemanticelevation.Itisaprocessinwhichwordsofgoodoriginfallintoillreputationornon-affectivewordscometobeusedinderogatorysense.

e.g.

boor

peasant→rude,ill-manneredperson

wench

countrygirl→aprostitute

villain

personwhoworkedinavilla→evilorwickedperson

silly

happy→foolishcriticize

appraise→findfaultwith

另外，常见的语义变化还有：Transfer语义转换Semantictransfer(P140):wordswhichwereusedtodesignateonethingbutlaterchangedtomeansth.elsehaveexperiencedtheprocessofsemanticchange.4类语义转换l

Associatedtransfer联想转换themeaningistransferredthroughassociation.e.g.pursefor‘money’,dishfor‘food’,glassfor‘cup’.腰包鼓起来了吗？把好处装入自己的腰包

今年暑假我妹妹拣了个大皮夹子（股市、房市）。l

Transferbetweenabstractandconcretemeanings.concrete→abstract:具体向抽象转换e.g.aftermath:secondcropofgrassaftermowing→consequence,result

threat:crowd,army人群、军队→威胁

apprehend:takeholdof,arrest抓住、逮捕→understand理解、领悟

grasp抓住→understand掌握、领会

nitpick从身上挑虱子→挑剔、找小毛病

abstract→concrete抽象向具体转换e.g.hope→Tomisthehopeofhismother.Heistheprideoftheschool.Thegovernmentissuedanorderforderequisitionoftransportation.政府发布一项条令，发放原来被征用的车辆。（抽象→具体）

l

Transferbetweensubjectiveandobjectivemeanings.主观与客观之间的转换e.g.pitiful‘fullofpity’(subjective)→deservingpity(objective)hateful:充满仇恨的、有敌意的（主观意义）→可恨的、讨厌的（modernEnglish:客观意义）painful:painstaking,laborious苦干的、勤劳的（17st）apainfulpreacher（acomplimentaryphrase）→objectivemeaning:使痛苦的、伤脑筋的l

Transferofsensations感官感觉的转换

suchasclear-sounding(sight-hearing),loudcolors(hearingtosight),sweetmusic(tastetohearing).l

TransferofPropernounstocommonnouns专有名词转化为普通名词e.g.DonJuan：alegendaryfigureinSpain,anoblewhointentionallyplayaround→aDonJuan一个调戏女性的人（aphilanderer）Epicurus伊壁鸠鲁(aphilosopherofancientGreece，著名的无神论者，其人生观就是人生在世就是为了追求享受)。→Epicurean:享乐者、讲究饮食的人Sandwich：earl伯爵.赌棍gamester,tosavetime

7.2

Causesofchanges词义变化的原因要求领会Lexicalmeaningischangedtomeetthefunctionalneedsoflanguageusers.Twomajorcauses

Extra-linguisticfactors

Linguisticfactors

7.2.1Extra-linguisticfactors语外因素：历史、阶级和心理因素

historicalreason，Classreason，Psychologicalreasonl

historicalreason:ensuretraditionandcontinuityUllman(1977:198):languageismoreconservativethancivilization,marterialaswellasmoral.Itisoftenthecasethatawordisretainedforanamethoughthemeaninghaschangedforthereferenthaschanged.

e.g.pen

car战争中使用的马拉的四轮马车→汽车automobile

computer:apersonwhocomputes→electronicmachineIncreasedscientificknowledgeanddiscoveryalsocontributetothechangeofwordmeaning.

l

Classreason:theattitudesofclasseshavemadeinroadsintolexicalmeaninginthecaseofelevationordegradation.

l

Psychologicalreason:theassociatedtransferofmeaningandeuphemisticuseofwordsareoftenduetopsychologicalfactors.Peoplechangewordmeaningowingtovariouspsychologicalmotives:love,respect,courtesy,suspicion,pessimism,sarcasm,irony,contempt,hatred,etc.

b.LinguisticfactorsThechangeofmeaningmaybecausedbyinternalfactorswithinthelanguagesystem.Fourtypes:Aphraseshortenedasonewordretainingthemeaningofthewhole.Theinfluxofborrowingscausesmeaningchangeofsomewords.Thecompetitionofnativewordsresultsinsemanticdivision.Analogyalsocausessemanticchange.l

Ashortenedwordretainsthemeaningofthewhole.e.g.gold→goldmedalgas→coalgasbulb→lightbulbprivate→privatesoldier列兵（thelowestrankinarmy）l

Borrowingscausemeaningchangeofsomewords.l

competitionofnativewordsl

AnalogyExercises:

P146-7

Chapter8MeaningandContext

意义与语境(WordsinContext)RevisionofChapter7Fourmodesofword-meaningchangeare_____,____,___,and___.Majorcausesofword-meaningchangeare____and____.

学习目标：了解两种不同的语境，语境对词义的重要作用，能运用语境争取理解词义并猜测新词的意义。考核要求：

本章共有两节1.

语境的种类识记：非语言语境和两种语言语境领会：语境对词义的影响。2.

语境的作用领会：语境如何消除歧义，限定所指和提供线索。运用：利用语境知识猜测词义。

Majorpointsinthischapterl

TypesofcontextExtra-linguisticcontextLinguisticcontextl

TheroleofcontextEliminationofambiguityIndicationofreferentsProvidingcluesforinferringword-meaning

Meaningandcontextaretwomainconceptsandresearchtopicsinpragmatics.Therefore,wecanseethatlexicologyiscloselyrelatedtoalmostallbranchesoflinguistics,includingpragmatics.Pragmaticsisconcernedwiththestudyofmeaningascommunicatedbyaspeaker(orwriter)andinterpretedbyalistener(orreader)(Yule1996:3).Runtheegg-and-spoonraceRunforthedoctorRunforone’slifeRunfromdanger

8.1

Typesofcontext

语境的类型Inanarrowsense,contextreferstothewords,clauses,sentencesinwhichawordappears.Thisislinguisticcontext.语言语境，又称为上下文。狭义上来讲，语境指的是某特定的词所出现的上下文，即它所在的句子、段落或更大的语篇单位。但是，使用语言离不开一定的客观条件和背景，语言活动总是在特定的时间、特定的空间、特定的情景、特定的人之间进行的。这种语言外的因素就是语外语境。这是从广义上来说的。e.g.Hewasbornheretwentyyearsago.Whodoes“he”referto?

Inabroadsense,contextincludesalsothephysicalsituation,i.e.extra-linguisticornon-linguisticcontext,whichembracesthepeople,time,place,andeventhewholeculturalbackground.语外语境、非语言语境e.g.,1.A:Howishe?B:Acoupleofpillswillcurehim.2.A:How’she?

B:Hewillbehospitalized.3.A:How’she?

B:Anambulancemustbesentforatonce.(basedonbackgroundinformation,threeresponsesareallpropriate.)e.g.4.A:YouspeakbeautifulEnglish.

B:Thankyou.Ihadverygoodteachersintheuniversity.5.A:YouspeakbeautifulEnglish.

B:No,no.MyEnglishisverypoor.

(culturalbackground)

8.1.1

Extra-linguisticcontext语外语境Non-linguisticcontext,contextofsituation,canhavegreatereffectonthemeaningofwords.情景语境e.g.,P150.e.g.,2.Dickens“DavidCopperfield”:MissTrotwood(toJanet,theservantofherfamily):Janet!Donkeys!

That’swhyitiscommontodifferentiatesentence-meaningandutterance-meaning.e.g.,“Dog!”a.

Thereisadogatthegate.We’dbetterkeepaway.b.

There’sadog!c.

Iorderyoutofire!

Extra-linguisticcontextalsoincludesculturalbackground,whichalsoinfluenceswordmeaning.语外语境包括文化背景，后者对词语的意义也有影响。Membersofdifferentcultureslookdifferentlyattheworldaroundthem.Somebelievethatthephysicalworldisreal.Othersbelievethatitisjustanillusion.Somebelieveeverythingaroundthemispermanentwhileotherssayitistransient.Realityisnotthesameforallpeople.e.g.differentmeaningof“饭”innorthernandsouthernpartofChina米饭.Asuccessfulinterculturalcommunicationappreciatessimilaritiesandacceptsdifference.

→interculturalcommunicationToavoidmisunderstanding

8.1.2Linguisticcontext

Thesecondfactorofthechangeofmeaningisfrominternallinguisticsystem.Linguisticcontextcanbesubdividedintolexicalcontextandgrammaticalcontext.语言语境包括：词汇语境和语法语境8.1.2.1LexicalcontextThisreferstothewordsthatoccurtogetherwiththewordinquestion.Themeaningofthewordisoftenaffectedanddefinedbytheneighbouringwords.Inasinglesentence,awordusuallyhasonemeaning,forinstance:a.

adropofwaterb.

Ifyouwantmorewine,there’sadropleft.c.

Withoutevenadropofmercyd.

AbigdropinthevalueoftheU.S.dollar.e.

Hisreputationtookarapiddrop.f.

Adropof100meters.(落差)g.

Apeachdrop(桃树上落下来的桃子)

8.1.2.2GrammaticalcontextInsomecases,themeaningsofawordmaybeinfluencedbythestructureinwhichitoccurs.Thisisgrammaticalcontext.

8.2Theroleofcontext语境的作用8.2.1EliminationofambiguityAmbiguityarisesduetopolysemyandhomonymy.Whenawordwithmultiplemeaningsisusedininadequatecontext,itcreatesambiguity.Johnrantheeggandspoonrace.Johnrantheeggandspoonraceandwonsecondplace.Homonymyalsocausesambiguityfortwoseparatewordssharethesameform.Theysawherduck.Theballwasattractive.Grammaticalstructurecana