超级强化讲义lv4翻译

Ineighteenth-century❶Ineighteenth-centuryFranceandEngland,reformersralliedaroundegalitarianideals,butfewreformersadvocatedhighereducationforwomen.❷Althoughthepublicdecriedwomen’slackofeducation,itdidnotencouragelearningforitsownsakeforwomen.❸Inspiteofthegeneralprejudiceagainstlearnedwomen,therewasonecewherewomencouldexhibittheirerudition:theli rysalon.❹Manywritershavedefinedthewoman’sroleinthesalonasthatofaninligenthostess,butthesalonhadmorethanasocialfunctionforwomen.❺Itwasaninformaluniversity,too,wherewomenexchangedideaswith s,readtheirownworksandheardthoseofothers,andreceivedandgave❶在18世纪的法国和英国，家们集体持主义理想，但乎没有家支持女性接受高教育。❷虽公众责备女缺教育，但这并不励女性为了识而追求知识。❸管大众对有化女性普遍在见，但女性在有个地方可以现自己学识的渊博文学（lrysalo❹许多作家将女在 中的色义为一位聪明的主人，但对女性来说不仅有社交的功能❺ 也是所非的大学，这所大学里性可以与有识人交换思想、阅自己的作品倾听别人的作品、受并提出批。❶Inthe1750’s,whensalonswerefirmlyestablishedinFrance,someEnglishwomen,whocalledthemselves“Bluestocking,”followedtheexampleofthesalonnieres(Frenchsalonhostesses)andformedtheirownsalons.❷MostBluestockingsdidnotwishtomirrorthesalonnieres;theysimplydesiredtoadaptaprovenformulatotheirownpurpose—theelevationofwomen’sstatusthroughmoralandinlectualtraining.❸DifferencesinsocialorientationandbackgroundcanaccountperhapsfordifferencesinthenatureofFrenchandEnglishsalons.❹TheFrenchsalonincorporatedaristocraticattitudesthatexaltedcourtlypleasureandemphasized plishments.❺TheEnglishBluestockings,originatingfromamoremodestbackground,emphasizedlearningandworkoverpleasure.❻Accustomedtotheregimentedlifeofcourtcircles,salonnierestendedtowardformalityintheirsalons.❼TheEnglishwomen,thoughsomewhatpuritanical,weremorecasualintheir❶在18世纪50年代，当法国的已根深蒂固时，一些英国女性，称自己为 女主人(salonnieres)的例子，形成了自己的。❷大多数蓝袜女并不想照搬法国 倾向差异和背景差异，或以说明法国和英国性质上的差异。❹法国包含的态度，这种态度赞同宫廷般的享乐以及艺术上的造诣。❺英国蓝袜女来自更普通的背景，强调学问与工作应该大于享乐。❻法国女主人习惯于过受严格管制的宫廷生活，她们在里往往遵守礼节。❼虽然英国女性在某种程度上表现出拘❶Atfirst,theBluestockingsdidimitatethesalonnieresbyincludingmenintheircircles.❷However,astheygainedcohesion,theBluestockingscametoregardthemselvesasawomen’sgroupandtopossessasenseoffemalesolidaritylackinginthesalonnieres,whoremainedisolatedfromoneanotherbytheprimacyeachheldinherownsalon.❸Inanatmosphereofmutualsupport,theBluestockingswentbeyondthesalonexperience.❹Theytraveled,studied,worked,wroteforpublication,andbytheiractivitieschallengedthestereotypeofthepassivewoman.❺Althoughthesalonniereswereawareof inequality,thenarrowboundariesoftheirworldkepttheirin lectualpursuitswithinconventionallimits.❻Manysalonnieres,infact,camouflagedtheirnontraditionalactivitiesbehindtheroleofhostessanddeferredtomeninpublic.❶起初，蓝袜女实模仿了法女主人把融入到她们的子中。❷而，随着她们的聚力越来越，蓝袜女逐把己看作一个女性体，并拥有一种女性团结的意，这是法国女主人所乏，法国女主中每个成员在自己的 中高地位而和他成员隔绝来❸在一种互相支的氛围中，女 了 的验。❹她们行、学习、作， 文章，用自的行为女性的固有象。❺尽管国女主人 的不但她们所在界的狭隘界限把们的学术追限制在传统范之内。❻实际上多法国主人在公开场合服，而将非传统的行藏女主人这一角色背后。❶ThoughtheBluestockingsweretrailblazerswhencomparedwiththesalonnieres,theywerenotfeminists.❷Theyweretootraditional,toohemmedinbytheirgenerationtodemandsocialandpoliticalrights.❸Nonetheless,intheirdesireforeducation,theirwillingnesstogobeyondtheconfinesofthesaloninpursuingtheirinterests,andtheirchampioningofunityamongwomen,theBluestockingsbegantheprocessofquestioningwomen’sroleinsociety.❶虽然与法国女主人相比蓝袜女是先者但她们并非女权义者。❷由于她们对教育的渴望蓝女愿意局限，去追自己的并且支女性团结，袜女开辟了疑性社会角色这一程的先河。Somemodernanthropologists❶Somemodernanthropologistsholdthatbiologicalevolutionhasshapednotonlyhumanmorphologybutalsohumanbehavior.❷Therolethoseanthropologistsascribetoevolutionisnotofdictatingthedetailsofhumanbehaviorbutoneofimposingconstraints—waysoffeeling,thinking,andactingthat“comenaturally”inarchetypalsituationsinanyculture.❸Our“frailties”—emotionsandmotivessuchasrage,fear,greed,gluttony,joy,lust,love—maybeaverymixedassortment,buttheyshareatleastoneimmediatequality:weare,aswesay,“inthegrip”ofthem.❹Andthustheygiveusoursenseofconstraints.动。❸我们的“弱点”——情感和动机，如、恐惧、贪吃、暴食、享乐、欲、❶Unhappily,someofthosefrailties—ourneedforever-increasingsecurityamongthem—arepresentlymaladaptive.❷Yetbeneaththeoverlayofculturaldetail,they,too,aresaidtobebiologicalindirection,andthereforeasnaturaltousasareourappendixes.❸Wewouldneedtocomprehendthoroughlytheiradaptiveoriginsinordertounderstandhowbadlytheyguideusnow.❹Andwemightthenbegintoresisttheirpressure.❶不幸的是，这些弱点中的一些弱点——包括我们对不断增加的安全感的需❷❸适应性的，从而弄懂它们是多么严重地误导了我们。❹并且，我们或以开始clawisaparticularlyinstructive❶clawisaparticularlyinstructiveexampleof“sacredlaw.”❷clawisaphenomenonsodifferentfromallotherformsoflaw—notwithstanding,ofcourse,aconsiderableandinevitablenumberofcoincidenceswithoneortheotherofthemasfarassubjectmatterandpositiveenactmentsareconcerned—thatitsstudyisindispensableinordertoappreciateadequaythefullrangeofpossiblelegalphenomena.❸Eventhetwootherrepresentativesofsacredlawthatarehistoricallyandgeographicallynearesttoit,JewishlawandRomanCatholiccanonlaw,areperceptiblydifferent.❶法(clw)是“律”中尤其有启发性的例子❷法的形式和其它所有律的形式截不同——尽管于律题材和成文条来说，相互间的确有很多巧合因此为了充理解所有可的律现象，研究 法是必不少的。❸即使其它两 、从历史上地上最接近 的法律——法(ihl)和马天主教 法(RmnCthlcnonl)，也和 有明显的差异。❶BothJewishlawandcanonlawaremoreuniformthanclaw.❷ThoughhistoricallythereisadiscerniblebreakbetweenJewishlawofthesovereignstateofancientIsraelandoftheDiaspora(thedispersionofJewishpeopleaftertheconquestofIsrael),thespiritofthelegalmatterinlaterpartsoftheOldTestamentisveryclosetothatoftheTalmud,oneoftheprimarycodificationsofJewishlawintheDiaspora.❸Islam,ontheotherhand,representedaradicalbreakawayfromtheArabpaganismthatprecededit;clawistheresultofanexamination,fromareligiousangle,oflegalsubjectmatterthatwasfarfromuniform,comprisingasitdidthevariouscomponentsofthelawsofpre-cArabiaandnumerouslegalelementstakenoverfromthenon-Arabpeoplesoftheconqueredterritories.❹Allthiswasunifiedbybeingsubjectedtothesamekindofreligiousscrutiny,theimpactwhichvariedgreatly,beingalmostnonexistentinsomefields,andinothersoriginatingnovelinstitutions.❺Thiscentraldualityoflegalsubjectmatterandreligiousnormisadditionaltothevarietyoflegal,ethical,andritualrulesthatistypicalofsacredlaw.❶犹太法和法都比法更加一致。❷尽管在历史上，古代以色列主权国全书(OldTestament)后半部的法律精神，与在外散居的犹太人所编纂整理的、犹太法典之一的犹太(Talmud)的法律精神是十分相近的。❸然而， 异教的完全决裂；法是从角度对由（1）前 律的各个组成部分,以及（2）从被征服上的非各民族那里拿来的、许多元素组成的、对极不一致的法律题材的结果。❹所有这些因素由于被同种审查，而被统一了起来。❺法律题材和规范的中心二元论，增加了法律典型的法律条例、道德准则以及仪式的多样性。❶Initsrelationtothesecularstate,clawdifferedfrombothJewishandcanonlaw.❷Jewishlawwasbuttressedbythecohesionofthecommunity,reindbypressurefromoutside;itsrulesarethedirectexpressionofthisfeelingofcohesion,tendingtowardmodationofdissent.❸Canonand claw,onthecontrary,weredominatedbythedualismofreligionandstate,wherethestatewasnot,incontrastwithJudaism,analienpowerbutthepoliticalexpressionofthesamereligion.❹Butthe betweenstateandreligiontookdifferentforms;inChristianityitappearedasthestruggleforpoliticalpoweronthepartofatightlyorganizedecclesiasticalhierarchy,andcanonlawwasoneofitspoliticalweapons.❺claw,ontheotherhand,wasneversupportedbyanorganizedinstitution;consequently,thereneverdevelopedanoverttrialofstrength.❻Theremerelyexisteddiscordancebetweenapplicationofthesacredlawandmanyoftheregulationsframedbycstates;thisantagonismvariedaccordingtoceandtime.情感的直接表达，倾向于调和不同意见。❸相反，天主教法和法受到和国家二元论的支配，这里的国家与犹太相反，并不是力量，而是对于相同的政治表现形式。❹但是国家和之间的呈现不同的形式；在中，表现为组织严密的、等级森严的僧侣之间的有关政治权利，天主教法则是一种政治。❺另一方面，法从没得到有组织机构的支持；因此，法也从未发展到能与国家进行公开力量较量的地步。❻在实施法以及国家制定的规则之间存在的；这种对抗随着地点和时间变化。Traditionally,thestudyofhistory❶Traditionally,thestudyofhistoryhashadfixedboundariesandfocalpoints—periods,countries,dramaticevents,andgreatleaders.❷Italsohashadclearandfirmnotionsofscholarlyprocedure:howoneinquiresintoahistoricalproblem,howonepresentsandsone’sfindings,whatconstitutesadmissibleandadequate❶传统上，有固定的范围和侧重点——研究包括时代、国家、戏剧性以及杰出的。❷的程序也具有某些明确而又坚定的观念：如何探究某一历❶Anyonewhohasfollowedrecenthistoricalli turecantestifytotherevolutionthatistakingceinhistoricalstudies.❷Thecurrentlyfashionablesubjectscomedirectlyfromthesociologycatalog:childhood,work,leisure.❸Thenewsubjectsare paniedbynewmethods.❹Wherehistoryoncewasprimarilynarrative,itisnowentirelyytic.❺Theoldquestions“Whathappened?”and“Howdidithappen?”havegivenwaytothequestion“Whydidithappen?”❻Prominentamongthemethodsusedtoanswerthequestion“Why”ispsychoysis,anditsusehasgivenrisetopsychohistory.❶任何一个关注近期历史学文献的人均能证实，历史学研究正在发生一场。❷最 的研究采用新的研究方法。❹以前历史主要是叙述性的，现在全部成为分析性❶Psychohistorydoesnotmerelyusepsychologicalexnationsinhistorical❷Historianshavealwaysusedsuchexnationswhentheywereappropriateandwhentherewassufficientevidenceforthem.❸Butthispragmaticuseofpsychologyisnotwhatpsychohistoriansintend.❹Theyarecommitted,notjusttopsychologyingeneral,buttoFreudianpsycho ysis.❺Thiscommitmentprecludesacommitmenttohistoryashistorianshavealwaysunderstoodit.❻Psychohistoryderivesits“facts”notfromhistory,thedetailedrecordsofeventsandtheirconsequences,butfrompsycho ysisoftheindividualswhomadehistory,anddeducesitstheoriesnotfromthisorthatinstanceintheirlives,butfromaviewofhumannaturethattranscendshistory.❼Itdeniesthebasiccriterionofhistoricalevidence:thatevidencebepubliclyaccessibleto,andthereforeassessableby,allhistorians.❽Anditviolatesthebasictenetofhistoricalmethod:thathistoriansbealerttothenegativeinstancesthatwouldrefutetheirtheses.❾Psychohistorians,convincedoftheabsoluterightnessoftheirowntheories,arealsoconvincedthattheirsisthe“deepest”exnationofanyevent,andthatotherexnationsfallshortofthetruth.❶❷并有充分的时候利用们❸但是，这种对心理学的实运对Fud精神分析法。❺这种对Fud❻件和其的详，而是于对创造了史个人进行的精神析；其演绎的理论不是源于们生活中这或那个实例而源于某个关于历史的人类的观点。❼它否历史的本标准，即公开可获得的而被所有的史家评估。❽❾释是对任何历史所能做出“最深刻的解，而其它的解释无法触及真。❶Psychohistoryisnotcontenttoviolatethedisciplineofhistory(inthesenseofthepropermodeofstudyingandwritingaboutthepast);italsoviolatesthepastitself.❷Itdeniestothepastanintegrityandwillofitsown,inwhichpeopleactedoutofavarietyofmotivesandinwhicheventshadamultiplicityofcausesandeffects.❸Itimposesuponthepastthesamedeterminismthatitimposesuponthepresent,thusrobbingpeopleandeventsoftheirindividualityandoftheircomplexity.❹Insteadofrespectingtheparticularityofthepast,itassimilatesallevents,pastandpresent,intoasingledeterministicschemathatispresumedtobetrueatalltimesandinallcircumstances.❶心理历史学并满足于违背史学这一学（这样一种意义上说，即用合适的方式来解释过去历史的究以及写作式；它也违背了过的历史本身❷否认过去的历史有完整性和身意志，而过，人们的行动是于许多不同动机，历史 也有许多不同原因和❸将强加于过去的定论也强加现在，由此 了和的独性和复杂性❹没有尊重历史的殊性，而是所有的历史 ，括过去的和在的，吸纳一单一的决定论模中，而这一定论模式被假定为所有时间和形中都是正的。Somerecenthistorianshaveargued❶SomerecenthistorianshavearguedthatlifeintheBritishcoloniesinAmericafromapproximay1763to1789wasmarkedbyinternalsamongcolonists.❷Inheritorsofsomeoftheviewpointsofearlytwentieth-centuryProgressivehistorianssuchasBeardandBecker,theserecenthistorianshaveputforwardargumentsthatdeserveevaluation. 民者之间的内部为特征的。❷作为20世纪早期“进步派”史学家（如Beard和❶Thekindof mostemphasizedbythesehistoriansisclass .❷YetwiththeRevolutionaryWardominatingtheseyears,howdoesonedistinguishclass thatlarger ?❸Certainlynotbythesidea supported.❹AlthoughmanyofthesehistorianshaveacceptedtheearlierassumptionthatLoyalistsrepresentedanupperclass,newevidenceindicatesthatLoyalists,likerebels,weredrawnfromallsocioeconomicclasses.❹(Itisnonethelessprobablytruethatalargerpercentageofthewell-to-dojoinedtheLoyaliststhanjoinedtherebels.)❺Lookingattherebelside,wefindlittleevidenceforthecontentionthatlower-classrebelswerein withupper-classrebels.❻Indeed,thewareffortagainstBritaintendedtosuppressclass s.❼Whereitdidnot,thedisputingrebelsofoneoranotherclassusuallybecameLoyalists.❽Loyalismthusoperatedasasafetyvalvetoremovesocioeconomicdiscontentthatexistedamongtherebels.❾Disputesoccurred,ofcourse,amongthosewhoremainedontherebelside,buttheextraordinarysocialmobilityofeighteenth-centuryAmericansociety(withtheobviousexceptionofslaves)usuallypreventedsuchdisputesfromhardeningalongclasslines.❿Socialstructurewasinfactsofluid—thoughrecentstatisticssuggestanarrowingofeconomicopportunityasthelatterhalfofthecenturyprogressed—thattotalkaboutsocialclassesatallrequirestheuseoflooseeconomiccategoriessuchasrich,poor,andmiddleclass,oreighteenth-centurydesignationslike“thebettersort.”Despitethesevaguecategories,oneshouldnotclaimunequivocallythathostilitybetweenrecognizableclassescannotbelegitimayobserved.OutsideofNewYork,however,therewereveryfewinstancesofopenlyexpressedclassWar）在这些年中占据着主导地位，一个人如何能够在这个更大的下区分的一种假设，即效忠派(loyalist)代表上层，新表明效忠派和叛党一样，都是来自所有的社会经济。❺（然而可能正确的是，富裕中加入效忠派人要比加 。❼实际上，中英国的努力倾向于 满。❿当然，那些继续留在叛党一侧的人会出现争执，但是18世纪社会（当然奴隶除外）巨大的社会流动性通常能防止这些争执顺着发展下去。事实上，社会结人阶层、中产阶层，或者采用像18世纪“thebettersort”这类名称。尽管存在这些模糊的范畴，但我们应该毫不含糊地声称：可辨认出的之间的敌意可以被合理地❶Havingsaidthis,however,onemustaddthatthereismuchevidencetosupportthefurtherclaimofrecenthistoriansthatsectionalswerecommonbetween1763and1789.❷The“PaxtonBoys”andtheRegulatormovementarerepresentativeexamplesofthewidespread,andjustified,discontentofwesternsettlersagainstcolonialor ernmentsdominatedbyeasterninterests.❸Althoughundertonesofclassexistedbeneathsuchhostility,theoppositionwasprimarilygeographical.❺Sectional—whichalsoexistedbetweenNorthandSouth—deservesfurther❶但是，说了这些之后，须补充道，有相当多的可以支持近期史学家进一 地区性普遍存在。❷“PaxtonBoys”与“Regulator运动”是两个有代表性的案例，反映出了西部殖民者由东部利益主导态度之下，但这一主要是地理上的。❹地区性——在南北方之间同样存❶Insummary,historiansmustbecarefulaboutthekindof theyemphasizeineighteenth-centuryAmerica.❷Yetthosewhostresstheachievementofageneralconsensusamongthecolonistscannotfullyunderstandthatconsensuswithoutunderstandingthesthathadto eorrepressedinordertoreach❶总之，历史学家们应该对待他们所强调的18世纪的种类。❷然而，那InTheWomenofMexicoCity,1796-❶InTheWomenofMexicoCity,1796-1857,SylviaMarinaArromarguesthatthestatusofwomeninMexicoCityimprovedduringthenineteenthcentury.❷AccordingtoArrom,householdsheadedbyfemalesandinstancesofwomenworkingoutsidethehomeweremuchmorecommonthanscholarshaveestimated;effortsbytheMexican ernmenttoencouragefemaleeducationresultedinincreasedfemaleli cy;andinfluentialmalewriterswrotepiecesadvocatingeducation,employment,andincreasedfamilyresponsibilitiesforwomen,whiledeploringwomen’spoliticalandmaritalinequality.❸Mentionofthefactthatthecivilcodesof1870and1884significantlyadvancedwomen’srightswouldhavefurtherstrengthenedArrom’sargument.❶在TheWomenofMexicoCity,1796-1857这本书里，SylviaMarinaArrom认为墨城中女人的地位在19世纪得到了提升。❷根据Arrom的说法，以女性为主的家庭 提倡为女性提供教育、就业以及家庭责任，同时为女性在政治上和上遇到的不而惋惜。❸如果提及这样一个事实，即1870年和1884年的民法(civilcodes)大大提高了妇女的权益，则有可能进一步加强Arrom的论点。❶Arromdoesnotdiscusswhetherwomen’simprovedstatuscoun ctedtheeffectsonwomenofinstabilityintheMexicaneconomyduringthenineteenthcentury.❷However,thisisnotsomuchaweaknessinherworkasitistheinevitableresultofscholars’neglectofthisperiod.❸Indeed,suchgapsinMexicanhistoryarepreciselywhatmakeArrom’spioneeringstudyanimportantadditiontoLatinAmericanwomen’shistory.❶但Arrom没有讨论女性地位的提高是否抵消了19世纪墨经济不稳定对妇女而导致的一个不避免的结果❸确实，墨史上这样的空白是让Arrom的开InFebruary1848thepeopleof❶InFebruary1848thepeopleofParisroseinrevoltagainsttheconstitutionalmonarchyofLouis-Philippe.❷Despitetheexistenceofexcellentnarrativeaccounts,theFebruaryDays,asthisrevoltiscalled,havebeenlargelyignoredbysocialhistoriansofthepasttwodecades.❸Foreachofthethreeothermajorinsurrectionsinnineteenth-centuryParis—July1830,June1848,andMay1871—thereexistsatleastasketchofparticipants’backgroundsandanysis,moreorlessrigorous,ofthereasonsfortheoccurrenceoftheuprisings.❹OnlyinthecaseoftheFebruaryRevolutiondowelackausefuldescriptionofparticipantsthatmightcharacterizeitinthelightofwhatsocialhistoryhastaughtusabouttheprocessofrevolutionarymobilization.❶在1848年2月，巴黎人民发动了一场 来反抗Louis-Philippe的君主立宪制(constitutionalmonarchy)。❷尽管对于这场 月的在过去20年中很大程度上被社会历史学家忽视了。❸对于19世纪巴黎的其它三个主要的——1830年7月，1848年6月以及1871年5月——里的任何一次来说，至少存在参与者背景的梗概以及对发生原因或多或少严谨的分有可能会按照与社会历史有关的动员过程所教给我们的内容来描述这场的性❶Tworeasonsforthisrelativeneglectseemobvious.❷First,theinsurrectionofFebruaryhasbeenovershadowedbythatofJune.❸TheFebruaryRevolutionoverthrewaregime,tobesure,butmetwithsolittle thatitfailedtogenerateanyrealsenseofhistoricaldrama.❹Itssuccessor,ontheotherhand,appearedtopitkeysocioeconomicgroupsinalife-or-deathstruggleandwaswidelyseenbycontemporaryobserversasmarkingahistoricaldeparture.❺Throughtheirinterpretations,whichexertacontinuinginfluenceonourunderstandingoftherevolutionaryprocess,theimpactoftheeventsofJunehasbeenmagnified,while,asanunintendedconsequence,thesignificanceoftheFebruaryinsurrectionhasbeendiminished.❻Second,likeother“successful”insurrections,theeventsofFebruaryfailedtogeneratethemostdesirablekindsofhistoricalrecords.❼AlthoughtheJuneinsurrectionof1848andtheParisCommuneof1871wouldbeconsideredwatershedsofnineteenth-centuryFrenchhistorybyanystandard,theyalsopresentthesocialhistorianwithasignaladvantage:thesefailedinsurrectionscreatedamassofinvaluableationasaby-productof’effortstosearchoutandpunishtherebels.❶两个有关忽视二月的原因似乎是显然的。❷首先，二月被六月掩盖了。❸二月确实了一个政体，但它遇到的反抗太小了，以至于它未能产生任何真正的历史剧变感。❹而另一方面，之后发生的却似乎将两个社会经济群体置于要么你死要么我亡中，而这场被当代观察家们广泛地看成一次历史性重大转折。❺通过他们的解读——正是这些解读对我们理解过程有持续影响——六月的影响得以被夸大，而与此同时，作为一个无心而为的结果，二月的意义则被贬低了。❻其次，像其它“成功的”一样，二月发生的时间未能产生最让人满意的历史记载。❼1838年六月以及187119世纪法国历史的分水岭，但是它们同样为社会历史学家提供了一个明显优势：这些失败的，作为试图查出并惩罚叛党的意外收获，产生了大量无价的❶Quitedifferentisthe eofsuccessfulinsurrectionslikethoseofJuly1830andFebruary1848.❷Experiencesareretold,butparticipantstypicallyresumetheirdailyroutineswithouteverrecordingtheiractivities.❸Thosewhoyedsalientrolesmay etheobjectsofhighlyembellishedverbalaccountsorinrarecases,ofcelebratoryarticlesincontemporaryperiodicals.❹Anditistruethatthepubliclyacknowledgedleadersofanuprisingfrequentlywritememoirs.❺However,such sarelikelytobehighlyunreliable,unrepresentative,andunsystematicallyp,especiallywhencomparedtothedetailedjudicialdossierspreparedforeveryonearrestedfollowingafailedinsurrection.❻Asaconsequence,itmayprovedifficultorimpossibletoestablishforasuccessfulrevolutionacomprehensiveandtrustworthypictureofthosewhoparticipated,ortoanswereventhemostbasicquestionsonemightposeconcerningthesocialoriginsoftheinsurgents.❶然而，像1830年7月和1848年2月这些成功的，其截然不同。❷他们成为当代期中庆祝性文章的对象。❹确实，每次中公认的们通常写回能系统地保存的。❻因此，若想为一次成功的建立起包含所有参与者的一个综合而又可信的记录，或者要回答我们可能针对者的社会背景最基本的问题，TheFourteenthAmendmentto❶TheFourteenthAmendmenttotheUnitedStatesConstitution,ratifiedin1868,prohibitsstate ernmentsfromdenyingcitizensthe“equalprotectionofthelaws.”❷Althoughpreciselywhattheframersoftheamendmentmeantbythisequalprotectionclauseremainsunclear,allinterpretersagreethattheframers’immediateobjectivewastoprovideaconstitutionalwarrantfortheCivilRightsActof1866,whichguaranteedthecitizenshipofall sbornintheUnitedStatesandsubjecttoUnitedStatesjurisdiction.❸Thisdeclaration,whichwasechoedinthetextoftheFourteenthAmendment,wasprimarilytocountertheSupremeCourt’srulinginDredScottv.SandfordthatBlackpeopleintheUnitedStatescouldbedeniedcitizenship.❹TheactwasvetoedbyAndrewJohnson,whoarguedthattheThirteenthAmendment,whichabolishedslavery,didnotprovideCongresswiththeauthoritytoextendcitizenshipandequalprotectiontothe slaves.❺AlthoughCongresspromptlyoverrodeJohnson’sveto,supportersoftheactsoughttoensureitsconstitutionalfoundationswiththepassageoftheFourteenthAmendment.❶在1868年获得批准 保护条款的确切意图仍然不明确，但所有解释者都认为，该制定者的直目标是为1868年的《民权法（CivilRightsAct）提供保障，这个法案保证所有在出生并服从 在“DredScott诉 认定在的 可以被 权法案被AndrewJohnson总统否决，他认为第十三条 但并未赋予国会给予已获自由的公民权和 速了 ❶ThebroadlanguageoftheamendmentstronglysuggeststhatitsframerswereproposingtowriteintotheConstitutionnotalaundrylistofspecificcivilrightsbutaprincipleofequalcitizenshipthatforbidsorganizedsocietyfromtreatinganyindividualasamemberofaninferiorclass.❷Yetforthefirsteightdecadesoftheamendment’sexistence,theSupremeCourt’sinterpretationoftheamendmentbetrayedthisidealofequality.❸IntheCivilRightsCasesof1883,forexample,theCourtinventedthe“stateaction”limitation,whichassertsthat“private”decisionsbyownersofpublic modationsandothercommercialbusinessestosegregatetheirfacilitiesareinsulatedfromthereachoftheFourteenthAmendment’sguaranteeofequalprotectionunderthelaw. 笼统的语言强烈表明，其制定者想要写入的不是一 最初80年里， 1883年的《民权 发明了“州行动”的限制，这个限制声称公共旅馆及其他商业机构的所有者做出的、对其设施实行种族的“私人”决定，不在第十四条中法律所保证的保护范围之内。❶AftertheSecondWorldWar,ajudicialclimatemorehospitabletoequalprotectionclaimsculminatedintheSupremeCourt’srulinginBrownv.BoardofEducationthatraciallysegregatedschoolsviolatedtheequalprotectionclauseoftheFourteenthAmendment.❷TwodoctrinesembracedbytheSupremeCourtduringthisperiodextendedtheamendment’sreach.❸First,theCourtrequiredespeciallystrictscrutinyoflegislationthatemployeda“classification,”meaningdiscriminationagainstagroupongroundsthatcouldbeconstruedasracial.❹ThisdoctrinehasbroadenedtheapplicationoftheFourteenthAmendmenttoother,nonracialformsofdiscrimination,forwhilesomejusticeshaverefusedtofindanylegislativeclassificationotherthanracetobeconstitutionallydisfavored,mosthavebeenreceptivetoargumentsthatatleastsomenonracialdiscriminations, discriminationinparticular,are“”anddeservethisheightenedscrutinybythecourts.❺Second,theCourtrelaxedthestateactionlimitationontheFourteenthAmendment,bringingnewformsofprivateconductwithintheamendment’sreach.❶二战后，一个更利于保护主张的法律氛围由于高等的Brownv.BoardofEducation一案中的裁决而到达顶点，对此案做出裁定，即实施种族的学校 外的任何分类都是 的，尤其是，可被列为“怀疑对象，应该给予更加严格的审查。❺第二，放宽了州行动对第十四条的限制，将各种新形式的个人行为也纳入到第十四条的适用范围。By1950,theresultsof❶By1950,theresultsofattemptstorelatebrainprocessestomentalexperienceappearedratherdiscouraging.❷Suchvariationsinsize,shape,chemistry,conductionspeed,excitationthreshold,andthelikeashadbeendemonstratedinnervecellsremainednegligibleinsignificanceforanypossiblecorrelationwiththemanifolddimensionsofmental❶1950年为止，将大脑过程和精神体验相联系的尝试所获得的结果相当令人沮❶Neartheturnofthecentury,ithadbeensuggestedbyHeringthatdifferentmodesofsensation,suchaspain,taste,andcolor,mightbecorrelatedwiththedischargeofspecifickindsofnervousenergy.❷However,subsequentlydevelopedmethodsofrecordingandyzingnervepotentialsfailedtorevealanysuchqualitativediversity.❸Itwaspossibletodemonstratebyothermethodsrefinedstructuraldifferencesamongneurontypes;however,proofwaslackingthatthequalityoftheimpulseoritsconditionwasinfluencedbythesedifferences,whichseemedinsteadtoinfluencethedevelopmentalpatterningoftheneuralcircuits.❹Althoughqualitativevarianceamongnerveenergieswasneverrigidlydisproved,thedoctrinewasgenerallyabandonedinfavoroftheopposingview,namely,thatnerveimpulsesareessentiallyhomogeneousinqualityandaretransmittedas“commoncurrency”throughoutthenervoussystem.❺Accordingtothistheory,itisnotthequalityofthesensorynerveimpulsesthatdeterminesthediverseconscioussensationstheyproduce,butratherthedifferentareasofthebrainintowhichtheydischarge,andthereissomeeviden