认知心理学记忆

1,记忆Memory,张亚旭,认知心理学Cognitive Psychology,2,Structure of This Lecture,记忆过程的认知成分加工水平途径与编码特异性原则记忆的分类记忆中的认知控制日常记忆,3,Hermann Ebbinghaus, 1885,无意义音节（nonsense syllables）2300个，CVC，如LEF, BOK, DAX写在不同的卡片上，随机抽取出一些卡片来让自己学习和记忆要求自己学到能够正确地按顺序复述两次的程度测量自己在各种不同的时间间隔条件下，重学到相同标准（如，能正确复述两次）所需要的时间,4,Hermann Ebbinghaus, 1885,重学时的节省（savings in relearning）重学所花的时间短于最初学习所花的时间记忆的保持量可通过重学时节省的百分数（percent saved）来测量保持量=（最初学习所花的时间 重学所花的时间）/ 最初学习所花的时间 100%,5,Hermann Ebbinghaus, 1885,遗忘函数保持量或节省百分数随间隔时间的增长而减小最初学习之后，一开始遗忘得很快，但后来遗忘的速度越来越慢,6,Hermann Ebbinghaus, 1885,记忆无意义音节与记忆有意义材料之间在记忆速度上的差别记忆包含80个音节的诗需要重复读9遍，而记忆同样数量的无意义音节则需要重复80遍,7,100年之后内隐记忆与外显记忆,Graf, P., Squire, L.R., & Mandler, G. (1984). The information that amnesic patients do not forget. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 10, 164-178.Graf, P., & Schacter, D.L. (1985). Implicit and explicit memory for new associations in normal and amnesic participants. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 11, 501-518.Graf, P., Shimamura, A.P., & Squire, L.R. (1985). Priming across modalities and priming across category levels: Extending the domain of preserved function in amnesia. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 11, 386-396.,8,记忆过程的认知成分,9,编码（Encoding）,记忆过程的第一个阶段，是个体对信息的最初的加工，这种加工的目的是为所经验的事件建构心理表征通过编码个体可以将所感知到的信息转换成记忆可以把编码看成是对正在发生的事件的一种特殊的注意方式，而正是这种注意方式对我们随后记忆这些事件产生了决定性的影响（Schacter, 1996）,10,编码的选择性,一个人的记忆选择编码哪些信息，往往会受这个人的过去经验（包括知识背景）、兴趣、需要、期望以及当时所处心情等因素的影响不同的个体对同一个事件可能拥有完全不同的记忆,11,编码的方式与编码的水平,记忆编码可以在深浅不同的水平上进行深编码。语义编码（semantic encoding）用看到的名词作主语造一个句子浅编码判断字母 “E” 是否包含在刚刚看到的那个词中将被试的记忆编码深度引向不同水平的实验任务称作定向任务（orienting task）,12,知识和经验影响记忆编码的深度或水平13922222046139 22222 046139 2222 2046,13,知识和经验影响记忆编码的深度或水平De Groot（1966）曾经向新手和大师短暂呈现一些棋子，然后，要求他们回忆棋子在棋盘上的位置。结果发现，同新手相比，大师对棋子位置的回忆成绩更好不过，当棋子的位置随机安排时，大师的记忆成绩并不比新手好（Simon Vicente & de Groot, 1990）,14,记忆编码的水平也取决于信息的重要性同情绪中性刺激相比，人们对情绪唤醒（令人愉快或令人厌恶）刺激的记忆更好（Bradley, Greenward, Petry, Gallagher & Chiba, 1996）可能与情绪唤醒刺激更加重要有关,15,情绪记忆神经基础的性别差异,情绪事件的记忆：女性好于男性在限时测验中，同男性相比，女性能回忆出更多的情绪性自传事件回忆得更快情绪强度更高对第一次约会、上一次度假和最近的一次争论的记忆更为清晰,16,两种解释,情感强度假设 (Affect-Intensity Hypothesis)对生活事件的更强烈的体验，使得女性能够更好地把这些事件编码到记忆中如果控制编码时的情感强度，性别差异应该消失,17,认知风格假设 (Cognitive-Style Hypothesis)男女两性之间在如何编码、复述或考虑情感经历方面，或者记忆测验中如何产生反应方面，存在差异控制编码时的情感强度，性别差异依然存在,18,Canli et al., 2002PNAS, 99(16), 10789-10794,Event-related fMRI男性女性各12名96张图片，从中性到高度负性情绪强度评定0 (Not emotionally intense at all)3 (Extremely emotionally intense)三周之后，再认测验 (unexpected. Why?)0 (Forgotten), 1 (Familiar), 2 (Remembered),19,R/K判断Indicating whether theyconsciously recollect some aspect of the original learning experience (Remember response)or simply felt that the word was familiar in the context of the experiment (Know response),高情绪图片记得更好。女性好于男性,22,23,24,25,存储（Storage）和提取（Retrieval）,存储是指得到编码的材料随着时间的保持。记忆存储的时间可长可短提取是指被存储起来的信息在后来某个时候的恢复,26,编码、存储与提取三种操作之间的关系,编码深度影响记忆存储的时间和质量，进而影响提取成绩每一次的记忆提取过程，可能也是一次对信息的再编码的过程然而，编码、存储与提取之间的关系远不止如此简单,27,加工水平途径与编码特异性原则,28,加工水平途径Levels-of-Processing ApproachCraik, 1979; Craik & Lockhart, 1972,也称加工深度途径（depth-of-processing approach）人们不仅能够从物理或感觉特性（如亮度或音高）这种浅水平上分析刺激，也能够从意义这种深水平上分析刺激。(当人们为了意义而分析刺激时，人们可以想到与刺激有关的联想、表象和过去经历)记忆痕迹是上述分析的副产品浅水平分析所留下的记忆痕迹是脆弱的，可能很快就被遗忘深水平分析所留下的记忆痕迹是可持续的，能够被记住人们后来的回忆效果取决于当初加工材料的方式同浅的感觉加工相比，深的意义加工，产生更永久的记忆保持,29,同非语义判断（如判断词中元音字母的数目）相比，语义判断（如范畴判断）导致后来的更好的突然回忆成绩（Parkin, 1984）同判断面孔照片上人物的性别或鼻子的宽度相比，判断面孔照片上的人物是否诚实，导致后来对面孔照片的更好的再认成绩（Sporer, 1991）,30,产生效应Generation Effect, Slamecka & Graf, 1978,一组被试完成大声朗读任务大声读出词对，如sea- ocean另一组被试完成产生任务为所看到的词（如sea）提供一个以特定字母（如“o”）开头的同义词，因此需要对刺激进行语义水平的加工同大声朗读任务相比，产生任务条件下，被试后来的回忆成绩更好，即出现产生效应,31,自我参照效应Self-Reference EffectRogers, Kuiper, & Kirker, 1977,四种加工水平词的物理特性听觉（声音）特性语义特性自我参照：判断一个特定的词，如generous, 能否用到自己身上,32,33,DYdewalle et al., 1985,向被试呈现广告图片（如照相机的图片），要求被试回答三种问题物理属性问题。如“图片中有红颜色吗？”语义问题。如“它能吃吗？”自我参照问题。如“你曾经使用过这种产品吗？”要求被试回忆广告图片上产品的商标名回忆成绩从最好到最差依次为自我参照任务、语义任务和物理属性任务,34,Bellezza, 1992,对于能够用到自己身上的形容词，被试能回忆出其中的46对于不能用到自己身上的形容词，被试只能回忆出其中的34,35,Zhu, Y., & Zhang, L. (2002). An experimental study on the self-reference effect. Science in China (Series C), 45(2), 120-128,36,R/K判断Indicating whether theyconsciously recollect some aspect of the original learning experience (Remember response)or simply felt that the word was familiar in the context of the experiment (Know response),38,为什么深加工会导致更好的记忆,Craik & Tulving, 1975要求被试阅读句子，然后判断跟在句子后面的词，放在句子中是否合适两种句子框架。简单的 vs. 精细的She cooked the_.The great bird swooped down and carried off the struggling_.跟在这些句子后面的词，放在句子中，或者合适（如rabbit），或者不合适（如book）都要求深加工/语义加工，但精细的句子框架导致了被试后来更好的回忆成绩,39,最初的加工水平途径只强调了记忆编码，而对记忆提取过程所涉及的一些细节，并没有给予足够的重视（Craik & Lockhart, 1972） 后来，Craik和他的另一位同事（Moscovitch & Craik, 1976）提出，如果提取条件与编码条件相匹配，那么，人们的回忆成绩会更好当提取任务强调表面信息时，浅加工比深加工记忆效果更好深的语义加工未必是理想的，除非提取条件也强调这些深的、更有意义的特征,40,An experience probably shared by everyone.,41,编码特异性原则Encoding Specificity Principle,当提取背景与编码背景相象时，回忆更好 (Begg Tulving, 1983),42,Geiselman & Glenny, 1977,学习视觉呈现单词。要求被试想象每个词是由一个自己所熟悉的人说出来的告诉一些被试想象这个熟人是一个女性告诉另一些被试想象这个熟人是一个男性测验由一个男性或一个女性说出每个词，要求被试再认讲话者的性别（提取背景）与想象的声音的性别（编码背景）匹配/不匹配,44,记忆的分类,45,材料在记忆中所保持的时间长度,感觉记忆（sensory memory）大容量；很快衰退短时记忆（short-term memory, STM）72；以听觉形式编码；约30秒长时记忆（long-term memory, LTM）大容量；以语义形式编码；几分钟到几十年,47,Atkinson和Shiffrin的记忆模型提出之后，引发了很多争论信息从感觉记忆转移到长时记忆，是否一定要经过短时记忆这个中转站（halfway station），是主要争论的问题之一,48,Rundus, 1971,49,Glenberg, Smith, & Green, 1977,让被试首先学习一个四位数的数字，学习2秒钟。然后，复述一个词，复述2、6或18秒。最后回忆数字由于被试认为他们的任务是回忆数字，所以，他们对词的复述只是一种被动的复述被试后来对词的回忆成绩与先前复述时间的长短没有关系对于复述过2、6或18秒的词，被试正确回忆的百分数分别为11%、7%和13%被动复述并不能提高记忆成绩,50,Claik和Lockhart（1972）认为更重要的是信息被加工的深度而不是复述时间的长短只有当材料以一种深的、有意义的方式得到复述时，复述才能改善记忆信息从感觉记忆转移到长时记忆，可能并不需要短时记忆这样的中转站,51,尽管信息从感觉记忆转移到长时记忆，可能未必一定要经过短时记忆，但是，短时记忆和长时记忆的区分得到了很多证据的支持,Kintsch & Buschke, 1969,53,HM严重的癫痫症。手术切除了部分颞叶和海马虽然短时记忆正常，但是把材料从短时记忆转移到长时记忆的能力受损不能学习或保持任何新的信息。例如，星期一见过的人，到了星期二就不认识了,54,KF摩托车事故损伤左侧部分大脑皮层。长时记忆正常，但短时记忆严重受损能很好地复述1a, 但不能复述1b1a. The dog bit the man and the man died.1b. The man the dog bit died.1b 对短时记忆要求更高。当加工 the dog bit时，主语 The man 需要存储到短时记忆中，直到加工到主句动词 died,55,工作记忆(Working Memory),Baddeley, 1986, 1992; Baddeley Gathercole & Baddeley, 1993我们完成认知任务时，对信息进行暂时存储和操作的一个记忆系统语音回路视觉空间画板中央执行系统注意控制、心理资源分配、协调来自语音回路和视觉空间画板的信息,56,61597494,57,Forward,?,58,53721839,59,Backward,?,67,工作记忆刷新7259472725259594,68,记忆中所存储的材料的性质,情节记忆（episodic memory）存储着关于事件发生时间以及事件之间关系的信息。这种信息与个人经历密切相关。情节记忆不仅储存着过去发生的事件，还储存着将来发生的事件以及记忆测验上的项目表,69,语义记忆（semantic memory）被组织起来的一般知识，它包括相当稳定的知识结构，包括关于词的知识，也包括许多不容易用词来表达的我们所知道的东西程序性记忆（procedural memory）关于如何做某事或关于刺激和反应之间联系的知识技能学习过程中，为什么一定要亲手操作,70,Semantic Memory,WZW军事：5/16, 31%战斗机真够呛，有知识的人这样的东西早就用上了。往上一点，往下一点。（水里的还是天上飞的）天上飞的。（是鸟吗）不是。（是坦克吗）很可能。（是军舰吗）不象，这是往上推的那个,71,LWZ锄树用的下雨使的那个，灯罩，雨罩吧。,72,A Story by Daniel L. Schacter,一名年青女子漫无目的地走在街上。终于，警察发现了她。事实上，这名女子患有一种极端形式的遗忘症，她失去了关于自己是谁的全部的记忆。让警察感到棘手的是，她身上没有携带任何能够证明她身份的东西。聪明的警察突然想出一个非常绝妙的主意，他们让她开始拨电话号码。结果，她拨了她母亲家的号码，尽管她并不知道她正在拨的是谁的号码,73,Schacter, D. L. (1987). Implicit memory: history and current status. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 13, 501-518.,一位女遗忘症患者。一天，一个人在和她握手之前，事先在自己的指缝间藏了一枚针。因此在和她握手时，刺了她一下后来，当那个人的手再次靠近她的手时，她不自觉地将手缩回，拒绝和那个人握手。然而，她并不知道自己为什么这样做拒绝握手无意识记忆的间接表达,74,记忆检测的方式直接/间接测量,外显记忆（explicit memory）自由回忆线索回忆再认,75,记忆检测的方式直接/间接测量,内隐记忆（implicit memory）词干补全（word-stem completion）残词补全（fragment completion）刺激偏爱词汇判断（lexical decision）知觉辨认,76,外显记忆与内隐记忆：人类记忆研究中研究得最彻底的一个分类,Graf, P., Squire, L.R., & Mandler, G. (1984). The information that amnesic patients do not forget. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 10, 164-178.Graf, P., & Schacter, D.L. (1985). Implicit and explicit memory for new associations in normal and amnesic participants. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 11, 501-518.Graf, P., Shimamura, A.P., & Squire, L.R. (1985). Priming across modalities and priming across category levels: Extending the domain of preserved function in amnesia. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 11, 386-396.,77,过程分离程序（Process Dissociation Procedure）及其在记忆研究中的应用,包含测验（inclusion test）要求被试用回忆出来的词补全词干，如果无法回忆，就用头脑中所想到的第一个补排除测验（exclusion test）要求被试用先前没有呈现过的词来补全词干两种测验最后均统计被试用先前呈现过的词补全词干的概率,78,P1= C (1- U)P2= U (1- C)P3= CUI = P1+ P2+ P3= C + U (1- C)E = U (1- C)C = I- EU = E/ 1- (I- E),79,过程分离程序在Stroop效应研究中的应用,P（“正确” | 一致材料, “红”）= Word + Color (1 Word)P1= Word (1- Color)P2= Color (1- Word)P3= Word ColorP（正确 | 不一致材料, “蓝”）= Color (1 Word),80,? ?当前正在使用的号码? ?之前的号码遗忘的机制抑制,81,记忆中的抑制过程,82,记忆提取中的抑制过程,83,Retrieval-Induced Forgetting in Semantic Memory Retrieval,Blaxton & Neely, 1983, Memory & Cognition, 11, 500-510Prime trials, two conditionsReading aloudFRUITORANGEGenerating aloudFRUITOTarget trialsGenerating aloudFRUITAThe number of prime trialsOne or four primesThe prime(s) and target were from the same (e.g., FRUIT) or different categories,85,ResultsRead-prime participants showed facilitation in producing the target in both the one- and four-prime conditionsGenerating a single prime speeded target productionGenerating four primes slowed target production,86,Retrieval-Induced Forgetting in Episodic Memory Retrieval,Retrieval-practice paradigmStudyFRUIT ORANGEFRUIT BANANARetrieval-practicehalf of the items from half of the studied categories, e.g., FRUIT OR_Test (after a 20-min delay)Recall all the exemplars of that category they remembered having seen at any point in the experimentPracticed exemplarsFRUIT ORANGEUnpracticed exemplarsFRUIT BANANA,Anderson, Bjork, & Bjork, 1994, JEP: LMC, 20, 1063-1087,87,Baseline conditionRecall corresponding items in an unpracticed categoryResultsRetrieval practice (e.g., FRUIT OR_) significantly impaired recall of unpracticed exemplars (e.g., FRUIT BANANA),Anderson, Bjork, & Bjork, 1994, JEP: LMC, 20, 1063-1087,Noninhibitory Accounts: The Occlusion Model,BASELINE CONDITION PRACTICED CONDITION FRUIT FRUIT .5 .5 + .7.5ORANGE BANANA ORANGE BANANA,.3,.5,.3,.3,Noninhibitory Accounts: The Resource Diffusion Model,BASELINE CONDITION PRACTICED CONDITION FRUIT FRUIT .5 .5 + .7.5ORANGE BANANA ORANGE BANANA,.1,.5,.3,.3,BASELINE CONDITION PRACTICED CONDITION FRUIT FRUIT .5 .5 + .7.3 -ORANGE BANANA ORANGE BANANA,Noninhibitory Accounts: The Associative Decrement Model,.1,.5,.3,.3,91,Summary of the Alternative Possibilities,Retrieval practice strengthens the practiced items, which intrude so persistently that subjects abandon efforts to recall unpracticed items (the occlusion model)damage association that links the category to the affected exemplar (the associative decrement model)alter the meaning of the practiced category so that the category label is no longer a functional cue for retrieving unpracticed competitors (the associative decrement model),92,A Property Shared by Noninhibitory Theories,All noninhibitory theories predict that retrieval-induced forgetting should be restricted to only those competitors that were also studied and tested under the retrieval-practice cue,The Independent Probe Technique(Anderson & Spellman, 1995, Psychological Review),Related ConditionPracticed Category (RP) Unpracticed Category (NRP)Rp+ Rp- Nrp-Similar Nrp-dissimilaritem item item item,Food,Crackers,Straw-berry,Red,Tomato,Blood,The Independent Probe Technique(Anderson & Spellman, 1995, Psychological Review),Unrelated ConditionPracticed Category (RP) Unpracticed Category (NRP)Rp+ Rp- Nrp-Similar Nrp-dissimilaritem item item item,Food,Crackers,Straw-berry,Tool,Drill,Pliers,Levy, B.J., & Anderson, M.C. (2002). Inhibitory processes and the control of memory retrieval. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 6, 299-305,97,记忆控制(Memory Control),记忆的选择性RememberForget,100,102,Can We Push Our Unwanted Memories into the Unconscious?,Repression“The essence of repression lies simply in turning something away, and keeping it at a distance from the conscious”-Sigmund Freud,103,104,Suppressing Unwanted Memories by Executive Control,Training phase40 unrelated word pairsordeal- roachThink/no-think phaseThink conditionto recall and say the associated response wordNo-think conditionnot to think about the responseCued recallordeal- _ insect- r_,Anderson & Green, 2001, Nature, 410, 366-369,105,Experiment 1: Recall the studied word that fit the cues,Anderson & Green, 2001, Nature, 410, 366-369,106,Alternative Hypotheses,Anderson & Green, 2001, Nature, 410, 366-369,subjects were askedto recall the studied item that fit the cues and not to withhold any items,107,Alternative Hypotheses,Associative interference hypothesisone strategy for avoiding an unwanted memory would be to generate diversionary thoughts to environment stimuli that remind us of itnew associations between these stimuli and the diversionary thoughts may interfere during later attempts to recall the memoryUnlearning hypothesissuppression training weakens the cue-target connectionsSuppression hypothesis,Anderson & Green, 2001, Nature, 410, 366-369,108,insect- r_,Anderson & Green, 2001, Nature, 410, 366-369,109,Experiment 2: Regardless of earlier instruction and a monetary reward for correct answers,Anderson & Green, 2001, Nature, 410, 366-369,110,Experiment 3: False theory,Anderson & Green, 2001, Nature, 410, 366-369,111,Averaged Across Three Experiments,Anderson & Green, 2001, Nature, 410, 366-369,112,Experiment 4: An episodic go/no-go taskordeal- roach,Anderson & Green, 2001, Nature, 410, 366-369,113,Martin A. Conway, Nature, 2001, 410, 319-320,Anderson et al.s (2001) methods “offer a way of exploring the underlying inhibitory mechanisms, and may ultimately shed light on how repression comes out”,114,As many as 20-25% of cells in the cerebral cortex may be inhibitory and serve to prevent other neurons from becoming overexcited,115,Anderson et al., 2004, Science, 303, 232-235,Recall & think,Prevent the associated word from entering consciousness at all,116,Anderson et al., 2004, Science, 303, 232-235,Hippocampal deactivationin the Suppression condition,Anderson et al., 2004, Science, 303, 232-235,DLPFC:dorsolateral prefrontal cortex,Anderson et al., 2004, Science, 303, 232-235,119,Amnesia in Abused Children,Children abused by a trusted caregiver are more likely eventually to forget the abuse than those maltreated by strangers,120,Directed Forgetting,Directed forgetting proceduresTBR & TBF itemsSingle-item-cueing methodDirected non-encodingDirected selective encodingBlocked-cueing or list method,121,Procedure of List Method,一开始，告诉被试，会看到一些词，需要记住这些词在半数的词（词表1）呈现完之后告诉其中一组被试忘掉刚才所学过的词（F组）刚才看到的那些词事实上是一个练习，目的是让你熟悉词的呈现速度和词的类型。你现在应该把这些词从头脑中清除出去，尽量忘掉它们，不要让它们干扰你学习下面将要呈现的实验词表告诉另一组被试记着这些词（R组）词表1呈现完之后，两组被试继续学习另外一些词（词表2），并且均被告知应该记住这些词,122,Directed Forgetting Effects,Costs of directed forgettingList 1: F RHow to explain?,123,Two Hypotheses,Retrieval inhibition hypothesis (Bjork, 1989)Contextual change hypothesis (Sahakyan Sahakyan & Delaney, 2003),124,F组的被试更可能把两个词表看成是分开的事件，当他们正在编码词表2时，他们不会维持最初编码词表1时所用的背景。相反，他/她们会生成一个全新的背景定向遗忘代价和获益是学习和测验的背景不匹配引起的定向遗忘代价的发生是因为词表1测验时的心理背景与当初编码它时的心理背景不匹配定向遗忘获益的发生则是因为，F组分别在两种不同的背景中编码两个词表，因此词表1对词表2的前摄干扰减小,125,Multiple Mechanisms Underlie the Effects of Intentional Forgetting (1),Differential encoding of TBR and TBF itemsselective rehearsal and elaborate processing of TBR itemsSegregation of TBR and TBF items into distinct sets in memoryA repression-like process at the time of retrieval that prevents TBF items from being recovered,126,Multiple Mechanisms Underlie the Effects of Intentional Forgetting (2),Selective rehearsal may underlie the item method effects, whereas retrieval inhibition could explain the list method effects (Basden, Basden, & Gargano, 1993),127,ERPs Associated with Retrieval Operations (1),Old/new effectstarts at 300 mspositive-goingpersists several hundred milliseconds,128,ERPs Associated with Retrieval Operations (2),Early frontal old/new effectstarts at 300 mslasting around 200 msfrontal midlinebe associated with familiarity,129,ERPs Associated with Retrieval Operations (3),Parietal old/new effectpositive-goingstarts at 400 mslasting several hundred millisecondsparietal and temporal (left)be associated with conscious recollection,130,ERPs Associated with Retrieval Operations (4),Right-frontal old/new effectonsets at a similar or slightly longer latency as the parietal effectis considerably more sustained in timeis associated with postretrieval operations necessary to reconstruct information from the study episodeSee Henson et al. (1999, Brain, 122, 1367-1381) for an investigation into the involving of right PFC in episodic memory retrieval,131,Ullsperger et al., 2000,Differential encoding alone: The spatio-temporal patterns of recognition-related ERPs for TBR and TBF items in Exp. 1 should resemble the patterns obtained for deeply and shallowly encoded words in Exp. 2Early frontal old/new effect should not differ for TBF and TBR itemsThe parietal old/new effect should be larger in magnitude for TBR items than for TBF items,Ullsperger et al., 2000, Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 12, 924-940,132,In contrast, if the ERP patterns differed qualitatively between the two experiments, at least partly different neural mechanisms should be involved in the recognition of material that had undergone the directed forgetting procedure as compared to recognition of words subjected to the levels-of-processing manipulation,Ullsperger et al., 2000, Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience,